LANGUAGES

Topic 1  language change: progress or decay

 

 

• Tongues, like governments, have a natural tendency to degeneration  (S. Johnson, Dictionary of the English language, 1775) 

 

Should language change be seen as corruption, as the quote above suggests, or as progress? Or perhaps as neither? Discuss, making reference to specific examples in the history of English

 

 

• Why should language change be considered, as Aitchison (2001) suggests ‘”neither progress, nor decay”? Discuss, taking as your starting point any process of language change that either we have discussed in class or that you have read about in the module.  

 

 

 

• “Language is only the instrument of science, and words are but the signs of ideas: I wish, however, that the instrument might be less apt to decay, and that signs might be permanent, like the things they denote.” (Samuel Johnson, Preface to A dictionary of the English language, 1755) 

 

Discuss the validity of Johnson’s claims using specific examples from ONE of the types of language change we have learn about in the module. 

[NOTE: It is important that your presentation achieves a suitable balance between the ‘theoretical’ explanation and discussion of Johnson’s claims and the exemplification of the arguments you provide to agree/disagree with Johnson’s views].

 

REFERENCES 

 

Burridge, K. and A. Bergs (2017) Understanding language change, London: Routledge [ch. 1: setting the scene]. 

 

Aitchison, J. (2001) Language change: Progress or decay? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press [chs. 1, 17]. Gramley, S. (2012) The history of English. An Introduction, London: Routledge [ch. 1]. Hoad, T. (2006) “Preliminaries: Before English”, in Mugglestone, L. (ed.) The Oxford history of the English language, Oxford: OUP, pp.7-32. McMahon, April M.S  (1994) Understanding language change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press [ch. 12]. Smith, Jeremy (1996) An historical study of English. Function, form and change. London: Routledge, [chs.1, 3]. Van Gelderen, E. (2006) History of the English Language, Amsterdam: John Benjamins [ch. 3]. 

 

Order of reading:  Burridge and Bergs (2017)  Aitchison (2001)[on language change as neither progress nor decay]  Van Gelderen (2006) / Hoad (2006) / Gramley (2012)  Smith (1996)   McMahon (1994)

 

Topic 2: Lexical Change

 

 

• Discuss the importance of processes of lexical change in the history of the English language.  

 

 

 

• Is it, in your opinion, fair to say that borrowing is a more important process of lexical renewal than word formation? If so, why? If not, why not? Do not forget to illustrate your claims with relevant examples

 

 

 

• “The development of new, on-line varieties of English has led to an unprecedented growth and change of the English lexicon.” Discuss the suitability of this claim making sure that your discussion provides clear and specific examples from the recent history of English.

 

 

 

• Describe the processes through which a language may enlarge its lexicon, and provide a critical analysis of the impact of French on the English word-stock. Do not forget to illustrate your claims with relevant examples.

 

 

Reference:

 

Topic 3 : Semantic change

 

 

• Using Smith’s (1996) discussion of the development of the words mood, mind and    spirit in the history of English, explain how semantic and lexical change can be said     to be ‘two sides of the same coin’.

 

 

 

• “A word ever- well, hardly ever—shakes off its etymology and its function. In spite     of all changes in extensions of and additions to its meanings, and indeed rather pervading and governing these there will still persist the old idea.” (Austin 1961: 149f.) 

 

Using the quotation above as starting point and specific examples from the history of English, discuss the nature of semantic change, reviewing the idea that “old ideas’ persist over time.  

[NOTE: It is important that your presentation achieves a suitable balance between theoretical discussion and exemplification of the arguments you provide].

 

REFERENCES

 

Burridge, K and A. Bergs (2017) Understanding language change, London: Routledge [ch. 3]. 

Campbell, L. (2004) Historical linguistics. An Introduction, Edinburgh: EUP [pags. 252-272].

Crystal, D. (2019) The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language, Cambridge: CUP [ch.11].

Ito, R. and S. Tagliamonte (2003) ‘Well weird, right dodgy, very strange, really cool: layering and recycling in English intensifiers’, in Language in Society 32(2), pp. 257-79 (the journal is available on-line).

Pyles, T. and J. Algeo (1991) The origins and development of the English language, Boston: Thompson [ch. 10].

Smith, J. (1996) An historical study of English. Function, form and change, London: Routledge [ch. 6].

 

Topic 4: Technology and Language change

 

 

• “We are at the threshold of a new era of English language studies…All areas of English language study have been profoundly affected by technological developments (Crystal 1995: 446).”  

 

     Discuss, giving specific examples of the technological advances that the quote may be referring to and offering a critical account of the way(s) in which these advances have changed the study of English and/or have influenced the language.

 

 

• “The development of new, on-line varieties of English has led to an unprecedented growth and change of the English lexicon.” Discuss the suitability of this claim making sure that your discussion provides clear and specific examples from the recent history of English.

 

 

Reference:

 

Baron, N. (2008) Always on. Language in an Online and Mobile World. Oxford: OUP. Ch.7.

Baron, N. (2012) “The impact of electronically mediated communication on language standards and style.” In Nevalainen, T. & Traugott, E.C. (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of the History of English. Oxford: OUP.

Baron, N. (2015) Words on screen. The fate of reading in a digital world, Oxford: OUP.

Crystal, D. (2006[2001]) Language and the internet, Cambridge: CUP

Crystal, D. (2008) Txtng : the Gr8 Db8, Oxford: OUP.

Crystal, D. (2008). “Texting.” The ELT Journal 67/1.

Crystal, D. (2011) Internet linguistics, London: Routledge.

Vandergriff, I. (2014) “A pragmatic investigation of emoticon use in non-native/native speaker text chat, in Language@internet 11 [on-line]

Veszelszki, A. (2017) Digilect : The Impact of Infocommunication Technology on Language. Berlin: De Gruyter.

Wood, C. et al. (2013) Text messaging and literacy. The evidence, London: Routledge.

 

You may want to do a search of journals such as language@internet or the Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication.

 

Topic 5 : Early Modern English: Standardization

 

 

• ‘The “inkhorn controversy” was more the result of the development of a standard dialect of English than of the need to enlarge the vocabulary of the language.’ Discuss

 

 

 

• Describe Milroy and Milroy’s (1985) model of standardisation and critically assess the importance of having a Standard variety of English. (Your discussion should address BOTH positive and negative aspects).

 

 

 

• “A standard language is a dialect with an army and a navy.” Discuss the suitability of this claim with particular reference to the history of (Standard) written English.

 

[NOTE: It is important that your presentation achieves a suitable balance between theoretical discussion and practical exemplification of the arguments you provide].

 

REFERENCES

 

Barber, C. (2006 [1997]) Early Modern English, Edinburgh: Edinburg University Press [ch. 2 ‘Attitudes to English’].

Fennell, B. (2001) A history of English. A Sociolinguistic approach, London: Blackwell. [ch. 5]

Keene, D. (2000) “Metropolitan values: Migration, mobility and cultural norms, London 1100-1700”, in Wright, L. (ed.) The development of Standard English. Theories, descriptions, conflicts, Cambridge: CUP [ch. 6]. 

Millward, C. M. (1996) A biography of the English language, Boston: Thomson [pp. 142-146, 211-217, 224-242].

Nevalainen, T. and I. Tieken-Boon van Ostade, I. (2006) “Standardisation” in Hogg, R. and D. Denison (eds.) A history of the English language, Cambrige: CUP, [ ch. 5].

Smith, J. J. (1996) An historical study of English. Function, form, change, London: 

Routledge, [ch. 4].

Van Gelderen, E. (2006) History of the English Language, Amsterdam: John Benjamins. [ch.7].

 

Order of reading:

Van Gelderen (2006) / Nevalainen & Tieken-Boon van Ostade (2006)

Fennell (2001)

Barber (2000)

Smith (1996)

Millward (1996)

Keene (2000)

 

Topic 6: Late Modern English

 

 

• Explain the controversies behind the establishment of an ‘Academy of the English Language’ in the eighteenth-century and provide a critical discussion of the consequences that the failure of the Academy project had for the English language.

 

 

 

•  As stated in its welcome page, “[t]he Queen’s English Society is a membership     organisation that exists to promote good English and the enjoyment of English.”

 

  (http://queens-english-society.org/). 

Provide a critical discussion of the ways in which QES mirrors the 18th century prescriptive tradition, and in what way(s) it ‘moves away’ from it. 


[NOTE: It is important that your presentation provides a well-informed and critical consideration of the main tenets of the LModE ideology and its social impact based on a careful reading and suitable referencing of previous sociohistorical sources/ scholarship. Intuitive, unsupported analyses will not achieve a high mark].

REFERENCES

 

Allen, K. and k. Burridge (2009) Forbidden words, Cambridge: CUP [ch. 5]

Baugh, A. and T. Cable (2002 [1951]) A history of the English Language, London: Routledge [Chapter 9].

Beal, J. C. (2004) English in modern times, London: Arnold [ch. 5].

Curzan, A. (2016) Fixing English: Prescriptivism and language history. Oxford: OUP. [The whole book is relevant, but to start, please read ch. 1, 3 and 7].

Cameron, D. (1995) Verbal hygiene, London: Routledge [Chapter 3].

Crystal, D. (2004) The stories of English, Penguin: Allen [Chs. 15 and 16].

Finegan, E. (1998) “English grammar and usage”, in Romaine, S. (ed.) The Cambridge history of the English language (vol. 3: 1476-1776), Cambridge: CUP [pp. 536-587].

Görlach, M. (1999) “Regional and social variation”, in Lass, R. (ed.) The Cambridge history of the English language (vol. 3: 1476-1776), Cambridge: CUP [pp. 459-538].

Klein, L. (1994) “‘Politeness’ as linguistic ideology in late seventeenth- and early eighteenth- century England”, in Stein, D. and I. Tieken-Boon van Ostade (eds.) Towards a Standard English 1600-1800, Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter [pp. 31-50].

Milroy, J. and L Milroy (2012[1985]) Authority in language, London: Routledge. [ch. 2 and 8]

Van Gelderen, E, (2002) A history of the English language, Amsterdam: John Benjamins [ch. 8]

 

Order of reading

Curzan (2016) 

Beal (2004) / Cameron (1995) / Milroy and Milroy (2012)

Van Gelderen (2006) 🡪 for a very good overview of the linguistic features of LModE we have not discussed in the lecture due to lack of time.

Finegan (1998) Görlach (1999) Klein (1994) Baugh and Cable (2002) Crystal (2004)

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